The effect of exercise motivation on adolescents’ subjective Well-being: chain mediation of physical activity and Social-emotional competency

Abstract

Objective

Based on the Self-Determination Theory, this study examined the influences on adolescents’ subjective well-being and revealed the chain mediating role of physical activity and socio-emotional competence between exercise motivation and subjective well-being.

Methods

Motives for Physical Activity Measure (MPAM-R), Subjective Well-Being Scale for Chinese Citizen (SWBS-CC20), Physical Activity Rating Scale (PARS-3), and The Delaware Social-Emotional Competency Scale (DSECS-S) were used to conduct questionnaire surveys on 1,530 junior high school students in Handan, Hebei Province. The data were statistically analyzed by using the SPSS 23.0 and AMOS 23.0 software.

Results

(1) There is a positive correlation between exercise motivation and subjective well-being, and the direct prediction of subjective well-being is significant; (2) Exercise motivation can indirectly influence adolescents’ subjective well-being through the partial mediation of physical activities and social-emotional competency; (3) Exercise motivation may also indirectly affects adolescents’ subjective well-being through the chain mediation of “physical activities and social-emotional competency”.

Conclusion

A higher EM may enhance adolescents’ level of PA and SEC, which further contributes to their SWB, which plays an important role in enhancing adolescents’ mental health and maintaining a healthy lifestyle.

Introduction

Subjective Well-Being (SWB), an important topic in contemporary Positive Psychology [1], has become a hot topic not only in the academic field, but also in our daily life, for example, “Are you happy lately?” may appear in people’s chit-chat when come across with acquaintances. The term SWB was first proposed by Diener (1984) and was defined as a holistic assessment of an individual’ s quality of life based on subjective criteria [2], which is an important indicator of an individual’ s quality of life and mental health [3]. Groups with lower SWB scores have less psychologically resilience and usually show negative emotions and extreme behaviors such as anxiety, depression and even suicide [4], which pose a great threat to both physical and mental health. Junior high school adolescents are in the critical period of growth and development, the vulnerable period of independent life, the sensitive period of behavioral imitation and the period of gradual change in social perceptions [5], and they are easily affected by factors such as poor lifestyle, heavy academic pressure and complex interpersonal relationships, which lead to a decrease in SWB index, thus inducing physical and mental health problems. Therefore, it is of great theoretical and practical significance to analyze the influencing factors and occurrence mechanisms of SWB in junior high school students, and then take effective measures to improve their SWB, which will help junior high school students to form a healthy lifestyle and good social cognition.

Relationship between exercise motivation and SWB

Exercise motivation (EM) refers to an individual’s psychological motivation to participate in sports activities or physical exercise [6]. According to the Self-Determination Theory (SDT), EM arises from one’s own intrinsic enjoyment of the exercise, which belongs to internal motivation and is the most autonomous form of motivation [7]. When an individual has strong internal EM and acquires emotions such as competence, active participation, and connectedness during exercise, the individual’s self-motivation and emotional benefits are subsequently enhanced, thus effectively increasing SWB [8]. In terms of the mechanism by which EM affects SWB, it is extremely complex due to the influence of social, family, school and other multi-level environmental factors on individual well-being. Some studies have pointed out that the behavior of exercise and its motivational type may have an impact on well-being, such as the predictive effect of autonomous exercise motivation on SWB is more pronounced than that of exercise behavior, whereas physical activities under controlled motivation has a negative predictor of well-being [9]. In terms of the influence of EM on SWB in different groups, Chen Shanping, a Chinese scholar, has classified EM into Health Motivation (HM), Appearance Motivation (APM), Fun Motivation (FM), Ability Motivation (ABM), and Social Motivation (SM) [10], and a study has found that HM and APM can motivate college students to improve their well-being by participating in PA [11]. Meanwhile, for the elderly group, a study has pointed out that autonomous exercise motivation was significantly and positively correlated with well-being when the elderly practiced tai chi [12]. It can be seen that EM is closely related to SWB, and current research has centered on college students and the elderly group, describing the effects of five types including motivation, including autonomous motivation, control and HM, on SWB, but there is a relative lack of the effects of adolescent EM on their SWB. Therefore, based on this, this study proposes research hypothesis 1 (H1).

H1

Adolescent EM has a significant positive predictive effect on their SWB.

The mediating role of physical activities between EM and SWB

Physical Activity (PA) is any physical movement caused by the contraction of skeletal muscles resulting in the expenditure of energy [13], which plays an important role in promoting mental health [14]. PA has long been recognized as the most effective and direct means of promoting physical and mental health. However, the current academic field has not explored the mechanism of PA on SWB in depth [15], and has mostly focused on analyzing the benefits of PA on SWB. From the perspective of internal benefits, when individuals participate in PA, they will have certain positive emotions due to the smoothness of technical movements, the climax of intense confrontation, and the pleasure of winning [16]. Meanwhile, from the perspective of exercise psychology, PA not only brings positive emotional experiences, but also promotes physical fitness, which effectively enhances individuals’ SWB [17]. In addition, evidence from a study of college students suggests that college students who engage in regular PA can enhance their SWB through the chain mediation effects of increased cognitive reappraisal and mental toughness [18]. From the perspective of external benefits, PA belongs to a social activity, in the process of participation, individuals will produce certain social interactions and social communication with others, which may effectively improve relationships with friends, family members, and teachers, etc., and the harmony of social relationships can lead to an increase in individual SWB [19]. It is worth noting that according to the SDT, the stronger the individual’s EM, the higher the level of participation in PA. Based on this, hypothesis 2 (H2) is proposed in this study.

H2

PA mediates the relationship between adolescent EM on SWB.

The mediating role of social-emotional competency between EM and SWB

Social-Emotional Competency (SEC) refers to an individual’s ability to recognize and manage his or her own emotions effectively, care for and show empathy for others, solve problems effectively, establish and maintain positive relationships, and make responsible decisions in a variety of situations [20]. SEC encompasses both social and emotional competencies, and is recognised as a key competency to help adolescents become proactive, socially responsible and ethical. It is also an important indicator to measure adolescents’ mental health [21]. Studies in EM related to social competence. Social adjustment is one of the important elements of social competence [22], and it has been found that EM of junior high school students positively predicts social competence. It is probably because students’ physiological and psychological needs such as personal health status, sense of achievement and sense of affiliation have increased in junior high school, and the consistency of their individual internal drive makes it possible for EM to predict social adjustment [23] Studies in the area of emotional competence related to SWB. Emotional competence refers to an individual’ s ability to effectively identify, express, and manage his or her own and others’ emotions [24], a study of Chinese and Japanese adolescents pointed out that EM has a strong correlation with personal emotional competencies such as pleasure, enjoyment and empathy [25]. In summary, SEC is influenced by EM to some extent, and it could be an important variable affecting individuals’ SWB. Based on this, Hypothesis 3 (H3) is proposed.

H3

SEC mediates the relationship between EM on SWB in adolescents.

The chain mediating role of PA and SEC between EM and SWB

In conclusion, EM, PA, and SEC seem to be antecedent variables of SWB, and EM can indirectly affect SWB not only by raising the level of PA, but also through SEC. On this basis, it has been shown that PA positively predicts Sect. [26], and it has been effectively demonstrated in college students [27] and children [28] groups. Among college students, those who regularly participate in physical activity have stronger social and emotional abilities and usually show good mental health [29]. Analyzed from the perspective of social control theory, individuals participating in PA can effectively understand social norms, promote interpersonal relationships, and alleviate psychological stress, thus contributing to developmental Sect. [30]. In the children group, when engaging in PA, children activate physical sensations associated with emotional experiences, such as increased heart rate and shortness of breath. In addition, when children engage in rougher play, they tend to have moderate and vigorous PA ratings, during which they usually pay attention to peer interaction and self-regulation of their emotions in order to make the game fun for all the participating groups [31]. It is worth noting that EM has been mentioned as an important predictor variable of PA and SEC, so whether EM can influence adolescent SWB through the chain-mediated effect of PA and SEC? Based on this, this study proposes Hypothesis 4 (H4).

H4: PA and SEC play a chain mediating role between EM and SWB.

In summary, using SDT as the theoretical basis [32], this study set EM as the independent variable, SWB as the dependent variable, and PA and SEC as the mediators, and examined whether PA and SEC play a role as chain mediators in the relationship between EM and SWB. The default model is shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

Default model

Methods

SPSS 23.0 statistical software was used to process and analyze the data. Descriptive factor analysis, exploratory factor analysis and validation factor analysis were used to test the reliability and validity of the scale. Spearman’s correlation analysis was used to examine the correlation coefficients between the variables, and the mediation effect was discussed according to the mediation effect testing process proposed by Wen et al. [33]. Structural equation modelling was developed using AMOS 23.0. The significance level of all indicators was set at p < 0.05. For data analysis, effect sizes were calculated with reference to Cohen’ s [34] criteria, and standard regression coefficients (Beta) were used to measure the degree of influence of the independent variable on the dependent variable.

Participants

This study is of cross-sectional study. Convenience sampling method, which is characterised by simplicity of implementation and low cost of use [35], was used to select students from three middle schools (Handan No. 13 Middle School, Handan No. 25 Middle School and Handan Guangtai Middle School) in Handan, Hebei Province, from 10th to 14th January, 2025 to conduct the questionnaire survey. The inclusion criteria were as follows: (1) school students; (2) voluntary participation in this study. The questionnaire exclusion criteria were as follows: (1) questionnaire filling time less than 180 s; (2) filling of questionnaire with a single answer; (3) filling of questionnaire in a regular way. A total of 1,847 questionnaires were collected in this study, 317 invalid samples were excluded, and finally 1,530 valid questionnaires were recovered, with an effective rate of 82.84%. Among them, there were 771 male students, accounting for 50.39%; and 759 female students were included, accounting for 49.61%. There were 792 students from urban areas, accounting for 51.76%, and 738 students from townships, accounting for 48.24%. There were 545 first-year students, accounting for 35.62%; 492 s-year students, accounting for 32.16%; and 493 third-year students, accounting for 32.22%. The study strictly followed the principles mentioned in the Declaration of Helsinki and has obtained written informed consent from all participating junior high school students and their parents. Meanwhile, this study was approved by the Medical Ethics Committee of Wuhan Sports University (2025001).

Demographic investigate

Based on demographics, this study investigated junior high school students’ gender, grade, location of registered residence, residency in school, and whether they were the only children in the family.

Measurement tools

Motives for physical activity measure (MPAM-R)

This study selected the Chinese version of the MPAM-R revised by Chen Shanping et al. [10], but also referred to the Motives for Physical Activity Measure – Revised (MPAM-R) composed by Ryan et al. [36]. The MPAM-R consists of 15 questions in 5 dimensions, namely health, appearance, pleasure, ability, and social interaction. The scale is scored on a 5-point Likert scale (1 no-5 very strong), with higher scores indicating higher levels of motivation. In this study, the Cronbach alpha coefficient of the scale is 0.954. At the same time, all exercise motivation measurement questions had CITC values greater than 0.4, which meets the requirements of the reliability test [37]. Confirmatory factor analysis yielded confirmatory factor analysis fitness index of CFI = 0.998, IFI = 0.998, and NFI = 0.992, which indicated that the scale had good reliability and validity in this study.

Subjective Well-Being scale for Chinese citizen (SWBS-CC20)

In this study, the brief Subjective Well-Being Scale for Chinese Citizen (SWBS-CC20) compiled by Xing Zhanjun et al. was selected [38], with a total of 20 questions, of which 4, 5, 6, 9, 10, 11, 13, 15, 17, 18, and 20 were reverse-scored questions. The scale is scored on a 6-point Likert Scale, with higher scores indicating higher subjective well-being of the individual. In this study, the Cronbach alpha coefficient of the scale is 0.983. At the same time, all SWB measurement items had CITC values greater than 0.4. Confirmatory factor analysis yielded confirmatory factor analysis fitness index of CFI = 0.998, IFI = 0.998, and NFI = 0.993, which indicated that the scale had good reliability and validity in this study.

Physical activity rating scale (PARS-3)

In this study, the Physical Activity Rating Scale (PARS-3) revised by Liang Deqing et al. [39] was used to assess the level of physical activity participation among adolescents. The scale examines the intensity, duration and frequency of exercise. The scale is based on a 5-point Likert Scale, with intensity and frequency scored from 1 to 5, and time scored from 0 to 4. The scale is calculated by multiplying the three items, with a minimum of 0 and a maximum of 100, with higher scores indicating greater physical activity. In this study, the Cronbach alpha coefficient for this scale is 0.808. At the same time, for all physical activity level measurement questions the CITC values are greater than 0.4.

The Delaware Social-Emotional competency scale (DSECS-S)

The Delaware Social Emotional Competence Scale (DSECS-S) revised by Zhu Xinxin et al. [40]. was selected for this study. The scale consists of a total of 12 questions in 4 dimensions: social perception, peer relationships, self-management, and responsible decision-making. The scale is based on a 4-point Likert Scale (1 not at all like me − 4 very much like me), in which “I blame others when I am in trouble” is a reverse scoring question, with higher scores indicating greater social-emotional competence. In this study, the Cronbach alpha coefficient of the scale is 0.971. Also, the CITC values were greater than 0.4 for all SEC measurement questions. Confirmatory factor analysis yielded confirmatory factor analysis fitness index of CFI = 0.999, IFI = 0.999, and NFI = 0.996, which indicated that the scale had good reliability and validity in this study.

Results

Reliability analysis results

The reliability analysis results of each scale are shown in Table 1. The Cronbach’s α coefficients for all sub-dimensions were greater than 0.8, indicating that the scales had excellent internal consistency [41].

Table 1 Reliability analysis results

Validity analysis results

In this study, the structural validity of the scale was tested by exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and validation factor analysis (CFA). The KMO and Bartlett’ s test revealed that the KMO value was 0.988 and the Bartlett’ s Test of Sphericity chi-square value was 71944.141 (p < 0.001p < 0.001), which indicated that the data were suitable for factor analysis. Factor loadings and commonality: four factors were extracted from the principal component analysis with a cumulative explained variance of 70.924%. As shown in Table 2, the absolute value of the factor loading coefficients of all the question items is > 0.4, and the common degree is > 0.4, indicating that the factors are effective in extracting the information of the questions.

Table 2 Rotated factor loading table (partial example)

Common method deviation test

Given that this study used a questionnaire, the data are subjectively rated by the subject adolescents, so the test needs to be filled out anonymously, reverse assignment of scores and other appropriate methods to ensure the objectivity and usability of the data. According to the results of Harman’s single-factor test, there are 11 factors with eigenvalues greater than 1 in this study, and the amount of variation explained by the first factor is 19.75%, which does not reach the critical value of 40%. Therefore, there is no serious common method bias in this study.

Correlation analysis

Table 3 Correlation analysis among major variables

The results of Spearman correlation analysis were as follows (Table 3), there is a significant positive correlation between EM and PA (r = 0.396, p < 0.01), between EM and SEC (r = 0.305, p < 0.01), and between EM and SWB (r = 0.402, p < 0.01). There is a significant positive correlation between PA and SEC (r = 0.297, p < 0.01) and a significant positive correlation with SWB (r = 0.396, p < 0.01). There is a significant positive correlation between SEC and SWB (r = 0.282, p < 0.01). It can be seen that the correlation level between each major variable reaches the significance level, which lays a good foundation for the subsequent verification of the mediation effect.

Mediating effects models

In this study, EM is used as the independent variable, SWB as the dependent variable, and PA and SEC as the mediator variables, the chained mediation effects of PA and SEC between EM and SWB were tested using SPSS 23.0 and AMOS 23.0 software, and the results are shown in Table 4.

Based on the findings, it was concluded that EM could predict SWB, and the standardised direct predictive effect of EM on SWB was 0.258 (95% CI [0.201, 0.313], p < 0.001) (H1). Meanwhile, PA and SEC played an indirect mediating effect in which a total of three paths were included as follows: in the EM→PA→SWB path, the indirect effect is 0.108 (95% CI [0.080, 0.139], p < 0.001) (H2); in the EM→SEC→SWB path, the indirect effect is 0.252 (95% CI [0.14, 0.40], p < 0.001) (H3); in the EM→PA→SEC→SWB path, the indirect effect is 0.12 (95% CI [0.116, 0.178], p < 0.001) (H4).

Table 4 Bootstrapping direct and indirect effects and 95% confidence intervals (Cl) for the mediation model

Based on the above results, the chain mediation model of this study is shown in Fig. 2. The fitness indexes of the chain mediation model are shown in Table 5, and the model is well adapted to the data [42].

Fig. 2

Chain-mediated effects model of PA and SEC

Table 5 The fitness indexes of the chain mediation model

Discussion

Discussion of direct effects

With the continuous development of society, SWB has gradually received more and more attention from researchers, which not only promotes the physical health of individuals, but also serves as a protective factor for psychological health [43]. This study is based on the SDT perspective, which was confirmed by data analysis that there is a linear relation between EM and SWB, i.e., EM positively predicts SWB, which is consistent with the results of previous studies, such as autonomous exercise motivation in older adults positively predicts well-being [12]. Meanwhile, based on the SDT, it is known that autonomy, competence, and relatedness are important prerequisites for individuals to satisfy psychological needs so as to obtain SWB. Therefore, based on SDT, it is hypothesized that the direct predictive effect of EM on SWB is related to the following two aspects. The first one is at the psychological level. According to SDT, individual self-needs are one of the most important factors in satisfying well-being, and EM usually stems from an individual’s endogenous choices and interest preferences, which can help to promote a higher level of positive emotions [44]. Therefore, individuals who satisfy the need for autonomy are more inclined to treat subsequent practice behaviors as self-fulfilling and not externally conditioned, so that individuals with stronger EM produce enhanced SWB. The second one is at the social level. Analyzing based on the Social Identity Theory, junior high school students’ daily life is mostly in group activities. Individual EM often derives from the social support and role identity obtained when participating in collective sports. This kind of emotional support helps middle school students to acquire stronger perceived social capital, which can effectively alleviate their developmental stress and improve SWB [45, 46]. Therefore, EM may be effective in promoting individuals’ SWB levels by enabling them to develop stronger positive emotions and social connections.

In summary, the strength of individual EM can have a direct impact on individual SWB, and the following suggestions are put forward: Firstly, the main position of school sports should be brought into play to enhance the motivation of adolescents’ sports participation. Schools of all levels and types should be based on their own actual situation, considering regional characteristics, campus environment and students’ needs and other multi-level factors, and actively set up diversified sports activities such as different sports and different forms of development under the premise of the physical and mental development of adolescents [47], so as to mobilize students’ interest in sports and enhance their intrinsic EM. It is worth noting that physical education teachers in this process should uphold the principle of teaching according to the talent, a group teaching model should be adopted for young people with different levels of athleticism, grouping students who are close in level or have similar sport preferences. Flexibly choose exercise programmes with scientific control of load and intensity, so as to promote the enhancement of the effectiveness of the exercise of young people. Secondly, family members should do a good demonstrating job and promoting the development of healthy lifestyles among adolescents. Family upbringing is an important factor influencing adolescents’ active and healthy behaviors [48, 49], thus family members should create a healthy living atmosphere in the process of guardianship, so as to help children develop healthy lifestyles and ensure that they have a high EM. Thirdly, the sports department should do a good job of publicity to help the youth establish a correct perception of sports participation. With the popularity of the Internet, network propaganda has become one of the most important channels to influence the cognition of young people. At present, the “fans circle culture” is breeding, so sports and other relevant departments should take the positive energy of sports as the main line of propaganda to help young people correctly realize the value of exercise [50], so as to effectively stimulate their intrinsic EM, and to help them enjoy themselves, enhance their physical fitness, improve their personality and strengthen their will in sports activities.

Discussion on mediation effect

Exercise motivation (EM) is one of the most important factors that determine the duration, amount, and frequency of an individual’ s participation in PA [51] and based on the SDT, individual psychological needs can stimulate autonomous motivation, and when psychological needs are satisfied, it can influence his or her SWB [52]. It can be concluded that individuals who have highly EM and participate in PA of a certain intensity usually show higher SWB. Some studies have shown that PA can directly and positively predict an individual’s SWB [53], which is consistent with the results of this study. However, it has also been shown that excessive participation in PA without adequate recovery can cause individuals to experience fatigue, mood swings, and psychological stress [54]. By analyzing the intrinsic reasons, it may be related to two aspects: On the one hand, it enriches emotional experience. During moderate physical exercise, individuals can effectively vent their negative emotions such as stress and anxiety, which satisfies the physiological-psychological mechanism of emotion regulation. Meanwhile, the process of physical exercise involves competition, cooperation, and winning and losing, which also helps individuals to form a richer emotional cognition, such as the sense of team belonging, self-efficacy, and other emotional experiences [55], thus helping individuals to develop a higher sense of SWB through the cumulative effect of positive emotions. On the other hand, it is the feeling of being healthy and physically fit. It is well known that moderate PA has the benefits of improving physical fitness, enhancing immunity levels, and improving cardiorespiratory fitness, etc [56]. A healthy body is the basis for satisfying the individual’s daily life, and it is also an important prerequisite for SWB [57]. Interestingly, the results of this study suggest that EM may positively influence junior high school students’ SWB through the mediating role of PA. Tian Yong et al. [58] also found a similar finding in a group of senior college students that EM may indirectly affect the level of an individual’s mental health through the mediating role of PA, thus helping improve their SWB. In summary, combining the results of this study, we hypothesized that EM could effectively promote individuals’ participation in moderate PA, and in the process help them to obtain rich emotional experiences and good feelings about their own physical health, thereby enhancing their SWB levels.

A good SEC is an important foundation for adolescents’ successful transition through adolescence [59]. A Meta-analysis showed that improving individual SEC can significantly improve students’ academic performance, establish positive peer relationships, improve emotional health, reduce problematic behaviors, and promote the development of moral character [60], a healthy body is the basis for an individual’ s daily life and is also an important prerequisite for influencing an individual’ s subjective well-being (SWB) [61]. The results of this study showed that SEC was significantly and positively related to SWB, while SEC mediated the influence of EM on SWB. It may result from relating to the following two aspects On the one hand, self-awareness influences adolescents’ SEC. Individual EM is one of the manifestations reflecting the level of self-awareness [62]. When adolescents hold different EM, such as health needs, ability development, and social interaction, not only can they participate in physical exercise more purposefully, but they can also achieve self-worth during the process of participation, and they can also have a clearer self-awareness of themselves [63], which helps to improve their SEC. On the other hand, SEC helps adolescents to better adapt to their living environment. Adolescents in puberty are susceptible to be influenced by different environments, such as family, school and society, which may lead to psychological disorders [64]. A good SEC can help adolescents communicate and negotiate with others more effectively, cope with the frustrations and pressures of life, and establish harmonious interpersonal relationships and a strong resistance to pressure [65], thus contributing to a higher subjective sense of well-being. Thus, EM may help adolescents to construct SEC by enhancing the developmental function of individual self-cognition, and then form a virtuous cycle of ‘environmental adaptation - psychological adjustment’, which will lead to changes in individual SWB.

In addition, this study constructed a structural equation model of “PA and SEC” as a chain mediator, and found that between adolescents’ EM and SWB, the “PA and SEC” chain mediation effect also reached a significant level. It is speculated that the intrinsic reasons may be related to the following two aspects. On the one hand, it is analyzed from the perspective of the mechanism of the psychological effect of physical activity. Adolescents’ participation in PA-related activities is usually accompanied by interactive behaviors such as helping and supervising among peers, which may help them to obtain immediate social support and improve their social network structure in the long term, and such continuous social interactions can help adolescents to improve their interpersonal skills, emotional regulation and stress resistance, thus systematically improving Sect. [66]. On the other hand, PA is an important medium for developing social-emotional competence. The difficulties and setbacks faced in the process of physical activity can help adolescents to sharpen their will and enhance their stress resistance. More importantly, physical activity emphasizes respect, equality and responsibility, as well as ethical standards and social norms, which are of unique value to the development of their sense of social responsibility, and will have a certain transferable value to adolescents’ growth in the future [28]. In summary, this paper confirms that EM can influence adolescents’ SWB through the chain mediation of PA and SEC on the basis of the results of the previous studies. It is further revealed that EM can promote individual PA levels and in the process can enrich emotional experiences and enhance social interactions, thus effectively enhancing SEC and ultimately improving and enhancing SWB.

Limitations

This study has the following limitations. First, study is a cross-sectional design, and it only considering adolescents in junior high school in Hebei as the survey group, which may limit the efficacy of causal inference, and the findings may not apply to non-Chinese groups or older adolescents. We will expand the sampling range of the sample in the future, and test or improve the results of the study by combining the longitudinal and cross-sectional studies. Second, The data obtained in this study only reflect the state of the adolescents over a given period of time, which does not allow for a valid judgement of the order of the mechanism of action between the variables. Third, this study did not investigate the effect of latent variables such as economic level, parenting styles, peer relationships, etc., and these unmeasured factors may lead to biased the results. Finally, this study mainly examined the relationship between EM and PA, SEC, and SWB as a whole, and there was no categorical comparison of adolescents’ types of EM. Subsequent studies can categorize and compare the sub-dimensions of EM to enrich the findings continuously.

Conclusions

This study confirms that adolescents’ EM is positively related to their SWB. It can not only directly affect the level of SWB, but also indirectly affect the level of it through the mediation of PA and SEC, respectively, as well as indirectly affect the level of adolescents’ SWB through the chain mediation of PA and SEC. The results indicate that a higher EM may enhance adolescents’ level of PA and SEC competence, which further contributes to their SWB, which plays an important role in enhancing adolescents’ mental health and maintaining a healthy lifestyle.