Internal migration impacts on the mental health of Bangladeshi female ready-made garment workers: a phenomenological study

Abstract

The focus of this study is to understand the impact of internal migration (rural-to-urban) on the mental health of female garment workers in Bangladesh with reference to the psychological trauma of rural-to-urban migration. In detail, thirteen female migrant workers aged between 18 and 50 who moved within the past five years for job purposes in the garment industry were interviewed using a qualitative phenomenological approach. Based on the study, we find that work–related anxiety, working too long, bad working conditions, social isolation and separation from family lead to emotional stresses. On the other hand, it also underscores the fact that migration can offer economic opportunities, financial independence and empowerment which may increase self-esteem and give a sense of achievement. Our findings indicate that migration’s mental health effect is dual, positive and negative, depending on the individual experience. It highlights the urgency to develop targeted interventions to improve psychological dimensions of mental health services for this group, bring about workplace improvements, and create supportive systems within which female migrants can be supported to overcome their psychological challenges. There is still more to do in future research to evaluate the effectiveness of interventions intended to improve the wellbeing of migrant workers as well as the longitudinal effects of migration on mental health.

Introduction

For centuries, millions have migrated each year for a number of reasons, such as economic, social, political, or environmental factors, all of which are complex. Based on the estimate of a total global migrant population of over 280 million by the International Organization for Migration (IOM), we would have 3.6% of the planet’s population living somewhere outside their countries of origin. International borders and internal migration in developing countries constitute a dominant trend in internal migration, especially from rural to urban; others emanate from urban centers of developing countries to developed countries. Unsurprisingly, these migration patterns have been greatly influenced by economic globalization, urbanization, and demands of labor market, particularly in the low and middle income countries, where individuals are trying to search better employment opportunities and living conditions [1].

South Asia, a region of high migration intensity, becomes home to large rural to urban migration, including countries like India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Nepal. Industrialization, unemployment in rural areas, climate vulnerability mainly propels this movement. In particular, Bangladesh has one of the highest rates of internal migration with millions migrating to urban centers (including Dhaka and Chattogram) primarily to work in the ready-made garment (RMG) sector [1]. It is one of the major pull factors of internal migration because it pulls over 4 million people, predominantly women, into RMG industry. However, external migrants are subjected to an opportunity, but rather experience job insecurity, low wages, and bad living conditions leading to negative health and psychological outcomes for internal migrants [2].

These socioeconomic disparities borne of natural disasters and employment driven relocations further aggravate the internal migration in Bangladesh. Faced with harsh working conditions and social isolation orchestrated by the urban industrial jobs, many give up and leave rural agricultural livelihoods for urban industrial jobs. The internal migration is not easily and without problems, also the internal migrants themselves may also be vulnerable to gender along the line, especially women in the labor market [2]. A combination of these factors creates a convoluted pattern of migration that is not simply using migration to benefit from urban job opportunities, but also inventing countless headaches in terms integration and adaptation in the cities [1].

Furthermore, the health implication of migration is also important because the type of health outcome of migrants depends on socioeconomic status. High levels of stress and mental health problems are the most frequent effects of stressors associated with having a precarious life and adapting to new environments among migrants [3]. However, there is an additional problem, namely, that the health disparities have very little to do with race and much more to do with how the marginalized populations like women and children experience other social and health care obstacles [4]. Therefore, migration can be approached as a possibility of better economic prospects, but it is also necessary to assess the health and social issues that migrants meet in the new places [3].

Both protective and risk factors in regards to mental health, migration is a double-edged sword. Under certain conditions, psychological well-being can improve due to migration, as it offers better economic opportunities, a higher quality of life, and greater autonomy [5]. Nevertheless, migrants are often subjected to social isolation, workplace exploitation, discrimination, and financial insecurity, along with such stressors, that they are vulnerable to different chronic mental health issues such as anxiety, depression, and stress disorders [6]. According to the research, psychological distress is greater among low-income labor migrants compared to non-migrants, which is attributed to the precarious working conditions, separation from family, and marginalization in the host communities [7].

Studies on Bangladesh have found large amounts of internal migrants, particularly female garment workers migrating from rural areas to urban industrial centers, to suffer from significant psychological distress. For example, they [6] estimated that over 40% of female garment workers were experiencing moderate to severe psychological distress, while Hossain et al. [8] reported that it was lower among non-migrant counterparts. Long hours of work, job insecurity, poor working and living conditions, and workplace harassment are among the factors causing this distress, especially in the readymade garment (RMG) industry [9]. Driven by a significant employment of the women in the industry, this industry poses unique challenges which further worsens their mental health state lacking adequate facilities and support systems available for these workers.

However, the differential mental health outcomes of migrants in Bangladesh are not uniform and are contingent upon myriad intersecting factors such as the type of migration and socioeconomic background, access to social support system, to name a few. Migration from rural to urban areas tends to result in loss of support from the community and struggle of adjustment to urban life [10]. Seasonal and economic migrants experience additional stressors of varying employment status and income security, among other things, which may exacerbate their mental health [11]. The importance of such targeted interventions and policy measures has been made imperative to mitigate the difficulties faced by vulnerable migrant populations in Bangladesh, including female garment workers [12].

However, research on the relationship of migration to mental health is conflicting. For example, parents of children that migrate internationally do confront higher mental health risks compared to those whose children migrate internally, indicating that the closer physical proximity allows for more regular interactions and provides better support, thus assisting in getting over any mental health conditions [13]. However, Shishehgar et al. [14] also contend that migration processes may strengthen intimate partner violence and, consequently, increase immigrants’ dangers of depression as well.

Also, migrant and non-migrant workers in Nepal have limited knowledge of mental illness, and this could be one of the sources leading to the adverse mental health of migrant workers [15]. Conversely, Zhou et al. emphasized that while new generation migrants in China are more educated, better educated migrants have more difficulties in social integration, and end up with poorer mental health outcomes [16]. They imply that despite equipping individuals with opportunities, education does not automatically lead to improved mental health outcomes when social circumstances involving migrations occur.

Furthermore, long-term mental health issues among war refugees are largely predicted by exposure to pre‐migration trauma and post‐migration stress [17]. Malm et al. [18] also found that the separation of families from one another is negatively associated with the mental health of refugees, although the magnitude of the effect may differ between people. Taken together, these studies provide a good example that migrant mental health outcomes are affected by a number of factors, such as whether migration is internal or international, social support networks, pre- and post-migration experiences.

Although there is increased awareness of how migration impinges on mental health, few studies have been conducted to address the mental health needs of female internal migrants working in Bangladesh’s garment industry. Since this industry relies on many millions of low-income women, knowledge of their mental health issues is needed both by academia and in policymaking. Studies on the experiences of migrants tend to generalize such without delving into how gendered labor conditions, workplace exploitation, and urban integration issues affect female garment workers uniquely.

Moreover, much research on migrants and mental health in Bangladesh has been carried out using quantitative assessments of migrants, which might not be able to show the subjective experiences and emotional realities of migrants. This study adopts a qualitative phenomenological approach to analyzing the lived experiences of female garment workers in order to reveal some of the psychological struggles the workers face, how they manage them, and the mechanisms by which they construct their individual resilience. This research is important for policymakers, mental health professionals, labor rights advocates, and stakeholders in the industrial sector as they are going to be enriched with the findings of the research and develop targeted mental health interventions and labor policies in Bangladesh that enhance the well-being of female migrants.

Study objectives

Primary objective

The objective of this study was to explore the experiences of Bangladeshi female garment workers regarding mental health with an emphasis on internal migration effect on their mental and psychological well-being and strategies they take up in coping with challenges of social integration.

Secondary Objectives

• To study the psychological effect of rural to urban migration on female garment workers in Bangladesh.

• Used to understand the critical stressors that affect the mental health of a female migrant in workplace conditions, social isolation, financial insecurity, etc.

• Investigate how female migrants cope with mental health challenges through coping and social support networks.

• In order to determine the role of labor policies, household and workplace practices, and social interventions on the mental health outcomes of female garment workers.

Theoretical framework

Hermeneutic phenomenology is the qualitative research approach for this study based on Heidegger’s [19] work on understanding human experiences as they are lived and interpreted within social and historical contexts. Unlike conventional psychological models that present mental health and how to cope with mental health concerns in preconceived clinical conditions, phenomenology centers the participants’ own meaning-making process of mental health struggles and uses their own words to express their mental health struggles. Considering that female garment workers in Bangladesh face special psychological stressors regarding migration, poverty, working conditions, and social isolation, hermeneutic approach allows for a more deep insight in how they make sense of and resolve these problems. Because mental health is not an experience that belongs to an individual but influences sociocultural, economic, and labor dynamics in particular, this framework is particularly appropriate for studying vulnerable labor migrant groups.

The qualitative methodology employed in this study is fully aligned with the hermeneutic phenomenological approach since it enables rich, narrative-based data collection using a method of semi-structured interview with female garment workers. This way of doing things allows participants to freely describe how their workspaces have impacted their mental health experience, how they have been coping with difficult situations, and what worked and what didn’t. A thematic analysis of data will be done to find the key themes like financial stress, workplace discrimination, social isolation, and resilience strategy. The objectives of this study are to look into the psychological influence of migration, identify main mental health stressors, investigate coping mechanisms, and analyze labor policies that are intrinsically dependent on such a framework because phenomenology ensures that the obtained results are not rooted externally, but rather in participants’ life experiences.

Methodology

Research design

This study used the phenomenological approach of a qualitative research design in exploring the lived experiences of the female garment workers in Bangladesh with particular reference to what impact migration had on their mental health. Given the nature of the study research, phenomenology was used to gain an understanding of participants’ (subjective) experiences of emotional and psychological stressors that are associated with themselves as migrants, workplace conditions, and social integration. Thematic analysis was used to determine the themes from the respondent’s narratives.

Theoretical framework

Hermeneutic phenomenology was used as the methodology upon which the study was built to allow further exploration into how female garment workers experienced and made meaning of their migration trips, along with the associated mental health challenges they experienced during and after migration. Understanding how people make sense of their experience, especially with reference to migration and gendered labor was the focus of this framework. It sought to make a rational and contextualized understanding of mental health in relation to migration.

Sampling criteria and participants

The participants are chosen purposively and they are female garment workers who migrated from rural to urban districts in Bangladesh. The study inclusion criteria were:

• Type: Female workers (biologically assigned as female).

• Age: Participants were aged 18–50 years.

• Participants’ Migration Status: Participants were migrants who had migrated within last 5 years from rural to urban areas for work in the garment industry.

• Experience: A diverse panel of (new and experienced) workers (new: with less than 2 years’ work experience, experienced: with more than 2 years’ work experience) was selected to create a variety of participants’ experiences and views.

To match the expected diversity of the population, the sample was also diverse in terms of age, work experience, and health status in terms of physical health.

Data collection methods

Semi-structured interviews were used to collect data of experiencing, emotional challenges, and coping strategies over the process of migration and their life at the garment factory. Since the interview was semi-structured, this format provided flexibility in branching out to other topics as they arose from the discussion, yet also allowed for covering the basic themes of mental health and migration.

The research data collection process continued from June 2023 to August 2023, over three months. The researcher conducted interviews with thirteen female migrant workers whom researchers had screened successfully throughout this period. Three months of data collection enabled researchers to obtain detailed data from various participants, thus securing thorough and complete responses.

Sample questions included

• 1. “I bring to the ladies from the garment industry to describe how your work in the garment industry has impacted your mental health?”

• 2. “What did you face in dealing with stress at home and at work?”

• 3. “What did you do to survive in the garment industry and be away from your family?”

Questionnaires were asked to seek in-depth answers on how migration affects psychological well-being, working conditions, isolation socially, and coping mechanisms.

Data analysis

Interviews were conducted, the interview data was transcribed verbatim, and the data was analyzed by thematic analysis. The following steps constituted this approach.

• 1. First Coding: To find important phrases, concepts and patterns in the data, the interviews were coded.

• 2. Code grouping: The codes were clustered into themes that represented major parts of participants’ mental health experiences; it included workplace stress, emotional distress, social support, and coping strategies.

• 3. Interpretation: Lastly, the analysis was interpreted by interpreting the themes within the discourse of gendered labor, migration, and mental health. The focus of the interpretation was on the processes that combine in how participants make meaning to their experiences and how such meanings impact their emotional and psychological well-being.

Meanwhile, during the data analysis process, the researcher bracketed (epoché), trying to set aside any preconceived ideas or biases that might creep in so that participants’ voices were always at the center of the analysis.

Trustworthiness and rigor

The following effort was made to help make the study trustworthy.

• Bracketing (Epoché) involved suspending personal biases and assumptions to approach the data with an open mind, ensuring that the analysis remained grounded in the participants’ experiences. After the initial analysis was done, participant feedback on findings was gathered using Member Checking. This enabled participants to check the accuracy and authenticity of the findings and confirm that their voices were heard.

• There is Peer Debriefing. The researcher consults with colleagues or mentors to discuss the findings and to ensure the validity of analysis and conclusions.

• Reporting standards: Our study abided by COREQ (Consolidated Criteria for Reporting Qualitative Research) to make sure that all qualitative research practices were transparent and trustworthy and adhered to the conventional qualitative research standards.

Ethical considerations

Approval was obtained from the Department of Economics at Jatiya Kabi Kazi Nazrul Islam University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh, for the ethical purpose of the study. All participants were given informed consent forms, and the study was conducted using confidentiality and anonymity rules. Also, the participants were made aware that they had the right to withdraw from the study at any point in time, and this would have no effect whatsoever. The participants were also given mental support resources if they experienced distress while giving interviews.

Findings

This thesis discussed how internal migration impacted female garment workers’ mental health in Bangladesh. The findings are based on in-depth interviews with 13 participants and offer a complex and multi-dimensional relationship between migration, work-related stress, social isolation, and the empowerment experienced by these women.

Work-related stress and anxiety

This study finds that the work-related stress and anxiety experienced by many participants result from the extremely high pressures associated with working in a garment factory. Productivity demands on female garment workers are high, hours worked are long, and the working conditions are stressful, producing the mental distress of these workers. According to one participant, a 19-year-old worker, he suffers from the constant anxiety which the production quotas bring and the fear when she had make a mistake, stating:

At first glance, it would appear that this mountain is impossible to climb… I experience constant anxiety that I will be reprimanded if I make a mistake… My nighttime dreams frequently feature unfinished clothing and needles for stitching.

Studies by [20] and [21], among others, agrees with this and asserts that work pressures in the workplace contribute to the mental health problems suffered by women workers.

Another 27-year-old participant noted the “pressure cooker” atmosphere at the factory, where supervisors often yell and humiliate workers. This creates an anxiety-filled environment, as workers constantly fear losing their jobs. She said:

They yell at us, they put us down, and they give us the sense that we are nothing more than a few moving pieces in a machine.

Similar to [22], workplace hostility and harassment are important dimensions of stress experienced by migrant populations that contribute to psychological distress.

Social isolation and loneliness

A second important finding was that most female garment workers who have migrated to large Indian cities live in immense social isolation and loneliness. The cultural differences and language barriers in the new urban environment led the majority of participants, particularly the 20-year-old participant, to feel isolated and disconnected from her community:

I feel as though I am completely alone. Our exchanges primarily comprise cordial salutations and, at most, brief discussions. I often overhear them murmuring and chuckling, and I am frequently prompted to speculate whether they are making reference to me.

It indicates cultural dislocation that many migrants feel leaving one country for another; hence they feel alienated. These findings are in line with previous research on migration-induced social isolation [23, 24], in that migration itself leads to isolation and reduces community support for migrants, which aggravates mental health problems among migrants.

Likewise, a 32-year-old participant commented on the feeling of isolation she felt, especially at religious festivals such as Eid:

Seclusion is especially strong at religious events. Eid was traditionally a time for families and friends to celebrate with new clothes and community meals. Now, I am stuck in my cramped, leased apartment all day, which is horrible.

Nirmala, et al. [25] also showed how long separation from family could lead to homesickness and emotional distress of migrant workers. This finding, therefore, aligns with theirs.

Separation anxiety and loneliness

The sense of loss was shared by a 23-year-old participant in that she migrated.:

I feel a profound sense of loss for them. Every phone call is a reminder of the significant physical distance that divides us. When the overwhelming sensation of being alone is present, it’s nearly impossible to breathe.

Her experience typifies the separation anxiety and homesickness that migrants describe and which are associated with mental health problems [21, 26]. Also, many participants said that it was emotionally difficult to adjust to city life and that it included problems handling separation and loneliness of families.

Empowerment and self-esteem

However, some of the participants also showed a sense of empowerment due to their migration. Gaining financial independence as well as a feeling of accomplishment from the work they provided was reported by them. One 25-year-old participant said:

Having the knowledge that my skills contribute to the accomplishments of this company is a source of tremendous happiness in my work; being recognized for my contributions gives me a sense of empowerment.

For instance, another 30-year-old participant also noted how being involved in union activities gave her self-confidence as follows:

I take an active role in union meetings and participate enthusiastically. My voice is being heard, and the sense of empowerment that I am experiencing is indescribable.

Given these findings, migration to work in factories, as discussed in literature on women’s empowerment through economic participation [27, 28], can be an opportunity for women to grow as individuals, as well as help them overcome their mental health problems.

To sum up, it is pointed out that migration of female garment workers is double-edged; on the one hand, work stress, social isolation, and separation from their family have negative impacts on their mental health, and on the other hand, financial independence, empowerment, and personal growth may benefit some of the participants in terms of mental health. In line with a theoretical framework of acculturation stress, including emotional distress related to migration [26], migration is something that can also offer opportunities for empowerment. However, the study indicates that the mental health effect of migration is not one dimensional, as there are both positive and negative impacts, depending upon what an individual has experienced and learnt from what they have gone through.

Discussion

In this study an attempt was made to understand the mental health impacts of internal migration on female garment workers in Bangladesh. Findings indicated that although migration provides economic opportunities for most participants, migration also brought about considerable psychological distress for those migrants. Its findings confirm what already exists in the research while at the same time shedding new light on the intricate relationship between migration, work stress, social isolation, and empowerment.

Impact of migration on mental health

The theme found to be uppermost was the work-related stress induced by the participants. Several women opined that workplace stress is one of the major leads to mental health challenges such as anxiety, depression, and work-related burn out. One of the workers, a 22-year-old, explained as follows:

I can’t sleep at night because I worry about making mistakes at work. The pressure is overwhelming, and sometimes I feel like I can’t breathe.

[20, 21] have previously found the same from the previous findings that poor workplace conditions in the low wage sector, especially in the garment industry, has a huge negative impact on the psychological well-being of the workers. There are high productivity quotas, poor working conditions, and a lack of support systems, which induce anxiety and stress.

Apart from this, social isolation because of being separated from the family was one major scenario that caused mental distress to the participants. Several women also expressed the emotional price of being away from their families, especially during religious and cultural events like Eid. One participant, a 28-year-old worker, shared:

Eid is supposed to be a time of togetherness, but now, I am stuck alone in my room, far away from my family. It feels like I’m missing a huge part of my life.

These results are similar to literature that describes acculturation stress and family separation as social dislocations that heighten emotional distress [22, 23].

Empowerment and positive outcomes

Interestingly, the study also found a countering theme: several workers felt empowered. It was a means of earning money to pay for their families or themselves for many. One 30-year-old participant noted:

I feel proud that I am supporting my family. This gives me confidence, and I feel like I have a purpose.

This research is in accord with other research on the empowerment of women through migration where economic independence serves as a cushion against mental distress [27, 28]. Hence, empowerment as conceptualized by [21] represents an effective coping mechanism as it allows the person to manage the challenges of migration.

While most participants struggled with mental health issues, some discovered that financial independence, personal improvements, and the opportunity to give to their families were on the beneficial side of their experiences of migration. This indicates the dual impact of migration as described by [26] as having both stressors and empowerment.

Implications for policy and practice

Clearly, there are other inquiries ahead of the real benefit of mental health interventions for migrant workers, especially in the garment industry. Significant contributors to mental health problems that emerged concerned workplace stress, social isolation, and family separation. Inter alia, some of the bad impacts of migration could be lessened through policies that improve the conditions of the workplace, such as reducing work hours, ensuring the availability of mental health support, and creating a supportive work environment. Also, community groups and family engagement programs are social support networks for the migrants that can help relieve feelings of isolation and distress.

This study concludes that migration to urban centers in Bangladesh presents numerous economic opportunities, but migrants experience work-related stress; social isolation, and alienation from family. While migration was connected with negative impacts on mental health, some women also became empowered and financially independent, proving that the link between migration and mental health is nuanced. Longitudinal impacts of migration on mental health and empowerment should be analyzed and effects of interventions in reducing negative impacts from migration should be evaluated in future research.

Conclusion

The findings of this study show that female garment workers’ internal migration in Bangladesh has multiple and complex effects on their mental health. On the one hand, level of migration brings economic opportunities and also sense of empowerment, but, on the other hand, it entails a host of psychological challenges. The work conditions of these workers include high stress levels regarding productivity quotas, poor working conditions, and lack of emotional support. Moreover, in the absence of social contact and in the company of their families, they suffer more from their mental health issues, especially at times of religious and cultural events.

Yet the study also shows that for many, migration is a means to financial independence that in turn, gives working people the feeling of accomplishment and enhanced self-esteem. Since both stressors and opportunities exist in labor migration, it is implicit to address the mental health needs of these workers through targeted intervention. To alleviate the deleterious effects of migration, policymakers, mental health professionals, and labor advocates should initiate efforts to improve working conditions, provide psychological care, and create social bonds among migrants. Based on the findings, there is a need to further research on the longitudinal effects of migration on mental health and on the effectiveness of interventions that can promote the mental well-being of migrant workers.