Table 2 Aims, intervention, study variables and main results of the included studies

Bantoft et al. (2016) [31]

To investigate cognitive consequences of sitting, using standing desks and using standing desks while walking on a treadmill

Sitting on the traditional desk

Static standing: using adjustable standing desks

Walking: low intensity walking in a treadmill while working at standing desks

1 session

Cognition: verbal short-term memory (Digit Span forward), verbal working memory (Digit Span backward), visuomotor speed and learning (Digit Symbol Coding), verbal working memory and attention (Letter Number Sequencing), verbal selective attention (Stroop Colour Word Test,), visual information processing speed (Choice Reaction Time), sustained attention (Paced Auditory Serial Addition Task)

No significant change in cognition. Cognitive performance was not deteriorated with the use of standing workstations

Benzo et al. (2016) [26]

To explore the acceptability and feasibility of standing desks in traditional college classrooms

NA

Students:

Percentage of class time spent sitting, percentage of class they would stand if standing desks were available, perceived positive health and academic changes (survey)

Instructors:

Experience with standing desks, attitude toward standing desks, ideal location of standing desks, health and academic outcomes would change for students with standing desks (survey)

Instructors and students were in favor of introducing standing desks. Most students, 83%, spent sitting the entire classes, 77% would be standing if available. Half of students reported that their physical health, attention and restlessness would improve with standing desks

Butler et al. (2018) [32]

To assess the effectiveness of a standing desks classroom for attenuating cardiometabolic risk

IG: standing desks, standing during at least two different class periods/week, this totaled to a minimum of 5 h/week of standing; 3 weeks

CG: sitting; 3 weeks

*Both trials were separated by 1 week of washout (sitting)

Blood pressure (sphygmomanometer)

Fasting lipids and blood glucose (Cholestech LDX System)

METs of sitting and standing (Parvo Medics TrueOne 2400 Metabolic Measurement System)

Standing desk intervention improved all cardiometabolic risk factors; METs were significantly higher in standing desk condition than during sitting

Chim et al. (2021) [35]

To investigate the effects of a standing desk intervention on physical activity behavior

IG: standing desks

CG: traditional sitting desk

9 weeks

Physical activity behavior, sedentary behavior, light physical activity, moderate-to-vigorous physical activity and lying (activPAL3™)

The stand group showed less sedentary time and more light, moderate-to vigorous physical activity compared to the sit group. Additionally, broke up prolonged sedentarism more frequently

Chrisman et al. (2020) [42]

To assess college students’ preferences of standing desks and reasons for or against standing desks

IG1: stand-alone desks (GD Marketing, USA), adjustable from 67 to 113 cm, with stools

IG2: portable table-top desks (Desk Riser 28X, Colorado, USA), adjustable from 8 to 36 cm off a desk, with three height settings, with stools

*Study protocol for both conditions were sitting 5 min, standing 5 min, sitting 10 min and standing 10 min

Four sessions

Student preferences, acceptability, and reasons (survey)

More than half of students preferred the table-top desk, most found the seat and stool acceptable; and 14/22 reported willingness to use standing desks in the classroom, only one reported they would not use them. The reasons to use standing desks were to improve health, prefer standing to sitting, being more attentive, alert and awake and battling boredom. Reasons for not using standing desks were being tired, prefer sitting, feeling hurt, sick or dizzy

Chrisman et al. (2021) [30]

To determine sitting and standing time in students when given access to standing desks and being provided with visual and oral prompts to promote standing and to examine facilitators and barriers to using standing desks

IG: standing desks (Desk Riser 28X, Longmont, CO, USA) with a stool, and told they could sit or stand, whichever they were

comfortable with + instructor-provided visual and oral prompts to stand

CG: standing desks without prompts

1 session

Sitting and standing time, sit-to-stand transitions and METs (ActivPAL)

Use of standing desks, reasons for standing or not, barriers to standing, optimal amount of time to stand in class, opinion about prompts (questionnaire)

CG spent more time sitting, less standing time and less METs, whereas standing desks group had more standing time, less sitting time and more METs, no differences in transitions were reported. Facilitators for standing included breaking up sitting, reduce back pain, and increasing attention and focus; main barriers were not wanting to distract others or being the only one standing. Most of students found the prompts adequate

Finch et al. (2017) [36]

To test for differences in reading comprehension and creativity in standing desks versus sitting desk

Standing desk workstation electronically adjustable (Jarvis, Xinchang, China)

Stand condition

Sit condition with an office chair with back support

1 session

Reading and comprehension (Graduate Record Examination General Test)

Creativity (Wallach and Kogan Creativity Test)

Perceived task difficulty and effort (questionnaire)

Mood (Positive and Negative Affect Schedule)

Performance expectation (questionnaire)

No differences in reading comprehension or creativity, in perceived task difficulty and effort, or the time to complete the tasks were found. Participants reported more positive emotions in standing condition, however reported more comfort sitting

Frost & Terbizan (2018) [34]

To determine the pattern of standing desks usage, the relationship to movement outside of class, and if the participants liked using the standing desks

IG: standing desks, participants were instructed to use the standing desks in standing position as much as they want and to shift position

CG: traditional sitting desk

6 months

Sit and stand time at the classroom (video camara)

Sitting, standing, and movement duration for 7 days (Actigraph GT3X +)

Perception and attitude toward standing desks (questionnaire)

Some participants stood and had more standing time. High variability between individuals and semester periods were reported. Perceptions toward standing desks were positive and perceived that standing desks improved their ability to work in class. No differences in outside physical activity were reported

Frost & Terbizan (2020) [33]

To determine the effect of using standing desks on attention, stress, anxiety, musculoskeletal discomfort, and academic performance

IG: 15 Standing desks (LearnFit model, Ergotron Inc., St. Paul, Minnesota) with a highchair. The participants were instructed to use desks in the standing position as much as they want and to shift from one position to the other

CG: traditional sitting desk

13 weeks

Subjective attention, stress, anxiety, musculoskeletal discomfort (Visual Analogue Scale)

Direct observation of attention and on-task behavior (video record)

The IG reported more subjective attention, less stress and low musculoskeletal discomfort; on-task behavior and direct observation of attention were not different between groups

Goodrich et al. (2020) [29]

To examine the impact of standing desks on students’ health and wellness orientations on the perceived importance of health benefits and to explore users’ attitude toward standing desks

NA

Attitude toward the standing desks, health motivation, wellness orientations, ones’ perceived ability to influence others, value consciousness, students perceived importance of calorie reduction, discomfort, cognitive attention, intention to use the standing desks at school (online survey)

Students thought that university should provide standing desks, and they would use them if they had the choice. The perceived benefits were weight loss, enhanced productivity and reduced back pain. Calorie reduction and potential cognitive benefits affected attitude towards standing desks, which positively impacted intentions to use

Green et al. (2020) [37]

To examine student responses to sitting versus standing and to compare sitting versus standing on student mood and interest in standing options in classrooms

IG: standing desks

CG: traditional sitting desk

6 sessions

Mood (ad hoc scale)

Attention and concentration, alertness and energy during the class, class participation, interest in standing desks, choice of standing desks or traditional desk (survey)

Mood increased in standing desks. Most participants preferred standing desks, and perceived that standing desks improve their ability to focus, pay attention, concentrate, alertness, energy and participation; most of them showed interest in standing desks, 91% reported that they would elect to use the standing desks

Grosprêtre et al. (2021) [27]

To test the feasibility and acceptability active workstations (including standing desks), and its impact on subjective markers of fatigue, attention and concentration and the lecturers’ point of view

4 active workstations: 6 standing desks (Skarsta, Ikea, Plaisir, France) with chairs; 6 Swiss balls; 6 cycling desks; 6 stepper-boards; 6 months

*Students were free to use or not the active workstations and standing desks or not, traditional workstations were still present

Students:

Feelings about the use of standing desks on physical aspects (activity, pain, fatigue, comfort), psycho-cognitive aspects (attention, stress, anxiety, participation, distraction) and academic aspects, intention to reuse standing desks in future (survey)

Instructors:

Observations about the students’ behavior on psycho-cognitive and academic aspects, willingness to reuse standing desks in future (survey)

Standing desks were the second chosen workstation; 19% perceived a decrease in discomfort and pain and a 26% decrease in fatigue in standing desks compared with traditional workstations. Conversely, 36% of students perceived an increase in discomfort and pain in standing desks. Most lecturers were willing to use standing desks

Jerome et al. (2017) [38]

To test the effect of installing standing desks on a traditional seated

university classroom on

standing time, sitting time, and sit-stand transitions; and to examine student's perceived impact on health, engagement, acceptability of standing desks, and reasons for using/not using standing desks

IG: 25 height adjustable standing desks (BALT Up-Rite Student Table, MooreCo Inc.) and stools, no specific goals related to

sitting or standing were provided but a motivation prompt was placed on top of each standing desks; 6 weeks

CG: traditional seated desks; 6 weeks

Sitting and standing behavior in classroom (observation)

Students’ support for introducing standing desks, perceived impact of using standing desks on engagement and affective outcomes; reasons for standing or not (online survey)

Standing desks classroom stood significantly more min/h and for greater part of class time; sitting time decreased. More than a third of students reported that attention, participation, focus, and engagement improved, and boredom, fatigue and restlessness decreased; 71% of students supported adding standing desks to classrooms

Moulin et al. (2022) [39]

To determine the feasibility of a mobile standing desk intervention and its impact on sedentary time; and to gain understanding of students’ experiences with standing desks

Mobile standing desks

Study 1: 1 week

Study 2: 1 month

Objective sedentary time (ActivPAL4™)

Subjective sedentary time (NIGHTLY-WEEK-U questionnaire)

Experience with the standing desks, facilitators/barriers, use and attitude toward standing desks (semi-structured interview in study 1 and online survey in study 2)

Mobile standing desks reduced sedentary time. Facilitators for the use of standing desks were desire to have the option to stand, previous knowledge of dangers of sitting, and increase productivity. Participants reported that standing while classmates were sitting was socially uncomfortable and that using the standing desk in the classroom was problematic because they had to use a desk at the back of the classroom to not block the view to others

Raulli (2017) [40]

To determine the effect of instructor-leading breaks on student standing time, student sitting time, and number of sit-to-stand transitions, physical discomfort and alertness during standing desks classroom

Condition 1: adjustable standing desks with stools

Condition 2: standing desks + instructor-led activity breaks every 30 min

2 weeks

Standing time, sitting time and stand-to-sit transitions, steps, METs (ActivPal)

Physical discomfort (General Comfort Scale)

Alertness (Standard Sleepiness Scale)

Engagement during class (survey)

Both conditions standing desks had similar percentage of class sitting, standing and transitions, no differences in perceived discomfort or alertness were found. Students valued the contribution of the instructor as close to neutral

Rostami et al. (2022) [41]

To assess cognitive and skill performance of students in standing desks compared with sitting workstations

Condition 1: standing desks; 1 session

Condition 2: sitting desk; 1 session

*Both trials were separated by a rest period

Working memory (N-back test), selective attention and cognitive flexibility (Stroop Test), reaction time (Advanced reaction time test), bimanual coordination (Two arm coordination test), finger motor skills and gross hand skills (Purdue pegboard test)

Comfort (Visual Analogue Scale)

No statistically significant difference between the sitting and standing positions in n-back, Stroop, advanced reaction time, two arm coordination, and Purdue pegboard. Participants were more comfortable in sitting positions and more easily distracted in standing positions

Sengupta & Kuilan (2023) [28]

To explore students'opinions on the acceptability and opportunities of standing desks in the classroom

NA

Opinion about standing desks in the classroom, preference to sit or stand, students’ prediction of changes in academic and health with standing desks (survey)

Students perceived standing desks acceptable, over 70% students favored the

opportunity of having a standing desk in classrooms and most of the students predicted either no change or positive change academic (focus, restlessness, attention, boredom) and health (fatigue, back pain) domains