Table 1 Population characteristics included in the study

Sex [n (%)]

0.002

 Female

223,892 (53.7)

221,446 (53.7)

2446 (51.5)

 Male

193,133 (46.3)

190,827 (46.3)

2306 (48.5)

Age [mean ± SD]

56.30 ± 8.12

56.29 ± 8.12

56.82 ± 7.93

< 0.001

Age [n (%)]

0.017

 < 60

241,067 (57.8)

238,401 (57.8)

2666 (56.1)

 ≥ 60

175,958 (42.2)

173,872 (42.2)

2086 (43.9)

Ethnicity [n (%)]

0.005

 White

392,478 (94.1)

388,051 (94.1)

4427 (93.2)

 Others

24,547 (5.9)

24,222 (5.9)

325 (6.8)

BMI [mean ± SD]

27.44 ± 4.79

27.39 ± 4.76

31.45 ± 5.69

< 0.001

BMI [n (%)]

< 0.001

 Normal (< 25 kg/m²)

136,727 (32.8)

136,261 (33.1)

466 (9.8)

 Overweight (25–29.9 kg/m²)

176,670 (42.4)

175,008 (42.4)

1662 (35.0)

 Obesity (≥ 30 kg/m²)

101,353 (24.3)

98,781 (24.0)

2572 (54.1)

 Missing

2275 (0.5)

2223 (0.5)

52 (1.1)

24-h weighted average noise [n (%)]

0.130

 ≤ 55 dB[A]

215,380 (51.6)

212,934 (51.6)

2446 (51.5)

 > 55 to ≤ 60 dB[A]

150,445 (36.1)

148,716 (36.1)

1729 (36.4)

 > 60 to ≤ 65 dB[A]

24,576 (5.9)

24,327 (5.9)

249 (5.2)

 > 65 dB[A]

26,624 (6.4)

26,296 (6.4)

328 (6.9)

Household income [n (%)]

< 0.001

 Less than £31,000

168,999 (40.5)

166,633 (40.4)

2366 (49.8)

 Equal to or above £31,000

184,468 (44.2)

182,963 (44.4)

1505 (31.7)

 Missing

63,558 (15.2)

62,677 (15.2)

881 (18.5)

TDI [n (%)]

< 0.001

 Tertile1

138,845 (33.3)

137,691 (33.4)

1154 (24.3)

 Tertile2

138,852 (33.3)

137,472 (33.3)

1380 (29.0)

 Tertile3

138,857 (33.3)

136,644 (33.1)

2213 (46.6)

 Missing

471 (0.1)

466 (0.1)

5 (0.1)

Education level [n (%)]

< 0.001

 Degree or professional education

131,228 (31.5)

130,240 (31.6)

988 (20.8)

 Other levels

277,924 (66.6)

274,288 (66.5)

3636 (76.5)

 Missing

7873 (1.9)

7745 (1.9)

128 (2.7)

Employment status [n (%)]

< 0.001

 Paid

243,407 (58.4)

241,062 (58.5)

2345 (49.3)

 Not employed or not in paid

171,958 (41.2)

169,572 (41.1)

2386 (50.2)

 Missing

1660 (0.4)

1639 (0.4)

21 (0.4)

Greenspace percentage in 1000 m buffer [n (%)]

< 0.001

 Low

197,043 (47.2)

194,516 (47.2)

2527 (53.2)

 High

197,052 (47.3)

194,938 (47.3)

2114 (44.5)

 Missing

22,930 (5.5)

22,819 (5.5)

111 (2.3)

Proximity to major road [n (%)]

0.034

 Low

208,440 (50.0)

206,138 (50.0)

2302 (48.4)

 High

208,585 (50.0)

206,135 (50.0)

2450 (51.6)

Lifestyle factor

Lifestyle score [n (%)]

< 0.001

 0

45,380 (10.9)

45,136 (10.9)

244 (5.1)

 1

98,862 (23.7)

98,039 (23.8)

823 (17.3)

 2

100,798 (24.2)

99,683 (24.2)

1115 (23.5)

 3

54,888 (13.2)

54,122 (13.1)

766 (16.1)

 4

18,193 (4.4)

17,872 (4.3)

321 (6.8)

 ≥ 5

3768 (0.9)

3685 (0.9)

83 (1.7)

 Missing

95,136 (22.8)

93,736 (22.7)

1400 (29.5)

Lifestyle [n (%)]

< 0.001

 Mostly healthy

45,380 (10.9)

45,136 (10.9)

244 (5.1)

 Moderately healthy

199,660 (47.9)

197,722 (48.0)

1938 (40.8)

 Least healthy

76,849 (18.4)

75,679 (18.4)

1170 (24.6)

 Missing

95,136 (22.8)

93,736 (22.7)

1400 (29.5)

Air pollution, µg/m³

NO₂ [median (Q1, Q3)]

26.13 (21.38, 31.21)

26.12 (21.37, 31.19)

27.80 (22.91, 32.51)

< 0.001

NO_x [median (Q1, Q3)]

42.23 (34.22, 50.72)

42.20 (34.19, 50.69)

44.72 (36.69, 53.55)

< 0.001

PM_2.5 [median (Q1, Q3)]

9.93 (9.29, 10.56)

9.93 (9.29, 10.56)

10.11 (9.49, 10.79)

< 0.001

PM₁₀ [median (Q1, Q3)]

16.03 (15.25, 17.01)

16.03 (15.25, 17.01)

16.11 (15.42, 17.15)

< 0.001

PM_2.5−10 [median (Q1, Q3)]

6.11 (5.84, 6.64)

6.11 (5.84, 6.64)

6.14 (5.86, 6.72)

< 0.001